What Percentage Of Animals Tested Are Not Rodents

Overview article

Rodents are unremarkably used in animal testing, especially mice and rats, but also guinea pigs, hamsters, gerbils and others. Mice are the most commonly used vertebrate species, due to their availability, size, depression cost, ease of handling, and fast reproduction rate.

Statistics [edit]

In the United kingdom in 2015, there were 3.33 million procedures on rodents (80% of total procedures that year). The most mutual species used were mice (3.03 meg procedures, or 73% of full) and rats (268,522, or 6.five%). Other rodents species included guinea pigs (21,831 / 0.7%), hamsters (ane,500 / 0.04%) and gerbils (278 / 0.01%).^[1]

In the U.Due south., the numbers of rats and mice used are not reported, but estimates range from around xi million^[two] to approximately 100 million.^[3] In 2000, the Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, published the results of an analysis of its Rats/Mice/and Birds Database: Researchers, Breeders, Transporters, and Exhibitors.

Over 2,000 enquiry organizations are listed in the database, of which approximately 500 were researched and of these, 100 were contacted directly by FRD staff. These organizations include hospitals, regime organizations, private companies (pharmaceutical companies, etc.), universities/colleges, a few secondary schools, and research institutes. Of these two,000, approximately 960 are regulated by USDA; 349 past NIH; and 560 accredited past AALAC. Approximately 50 percent of the organizations contacted revealed a specific or approximated number of animals in their laboratories. The full number of animals for those organizations is: 250,000–1,000,000 rats; 400,000–2,000,000 mice; and 130,000–900,000 birds.

Rodent types [edit]

Mice [edit]

Mice are the most commonly used vertebrate species, popular because of their availability, size, low toll, ease of handling, and fast reproduction rate.^[4] Mice are quick to attain sexual maturity, as well equally quick to gestate, where labs can take a new generation every 3 weeks as well equally a relatively short lifespan of ii years.^[5]

They are widely considered to be the prime model of inherited human affliction and share 99% of their genes with humans.^[vi] With the advent of genetic engineering technology, genetically modified mice tin be generated to order and can price hundreds of dollars each.^[7]

Transgenic creature production consists of injecting each construct into 300–350 eggs, typically representing three days' work. Twenty to fifty mice will commonly be built-in from this number of injected eggs. These animals are screened for the presence of the transgene by a polymerase chain reaction genotyping assay. The number of transgenic animals typically varies from ii to eight.^[8]

Chimeric mouse product consists of injecting embryonic stem cells provided by the investigator into 150–175 blastocysts, representing three days of work. Thirty to fifty live mice are normally born from this number of injected blastocysts. Normally, the skin color of the mice from which the host blastocysts are derived is dissimilar from that of the strain used to produce the embryonic stem cells. Typically two to six mice will have skin and hair with greater than seventy percent ES cell contribution, indicating a skilful chance for embryonic stem cell contribution to the germline.^[8]

Syrian hamsters [edit]

Syrian hamsters are used to model the man medical weather condition including various cancers, metabolic diseases, non-cancer respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, infectious diseases, and general health concerns.^[ix] In 2006-07, Syrian hamsters deemed for 19% of the total animal research participants in the Usa.^[ten]

Rats [edit]

This section needs expansion. You can help past adding to it. (May 2015)

Limitations [edit]

While mice, rats and other rodents are by far the virtually widely used animals in biomedical inquiry, recent studies have highlighted their limitations.^[11] For instance, the utility of the employ of rodents in testing for sepsis,^{[12] [13]} burns,^[13] inflammation,^[thirteen] stroke,^{[14] [xv]} ALS,^{[xvi] [17] [18]} Alzheimer's,^[19] diabetes,^{[xx] [21]} cancer,^{[22] [23] [24] [25] [26]} multiple sclerosis,^[27] Parkinson's affliction^[27] and other illnesses has been called into question by a number of researchers. Regarding experiments on mice in detail, some researchers have complained that "years and billions of dollars have been wasted post-obit false leads" as a result of a preoccupation with the use of these animals in studies.^[11]

Mice differ from humans in several immune backdrop: mice are more resistant to some toxins than humans; have a lower total neutrophil fraction in the blood, a lower neutrophil enzymatic capacity, lower activeness of the complement system, and a dissimilar set up of pentraxins involved in the inflammatory process; and lack genes for important components of the immune system, such as IL-eight, IL-37, TLR10, ICAM-iii, etc.^[12] Laboratory mice reared in specific-pathogen-free (SPF) weather normally have a rather immature allowed system with a deficit of memory T cells. These mice may have express diversity of the microbiota, which direct affects the immune arrangement and the evolution of pathological conditions. Moreover, persistent virus infections (for example, herpesviruses) are activated in humans, but not in SPF mice, with septic complications and may change the resistance to bacterial coinfections. "Muddy" mice are maybe amend suitable for mimicking homo pathologies. In addition, inbred mouse strains are used in the overwhelming majority of studies, while the homo population is heterogeneous, pointing to the importance of studies in interstrain hybrid, outbred, and nonlinear mice.^[12]

An article in The Scientist notes, "The difficulties associated with using animal models for human being disease result from the metabolic, anatomic, and cellular differences betwixt humans and other creatures, but the problems go even deeper than that" including issues with the blueprint and execution of the tests themselves.^[fifteen]

For case, researchers accept found that many rats and mice in laboratories are obese from excess food and minimal practise which alters their physiology and drug metabolism.^[28] Many laboratory animals, including mice and rats, are chronically stressed which can as well negatively bear on research outcomes and the power to accurately extrapolate findings to humans.^{[29] [xxx]} Researchers have too noted that many studies involving mice, rats and other rodents are poorly designed, leading to questionable findings.^{[15] [17] [xviii]} One explanation for deficiencies in studies of rodents housed in laboratory cages is that they lack access to environmental agency and thus the ongoing freedom to make decisions and experience their consequences. By housing rodents under farthermost impoverished weather condition, these captive animals bear diminished resemblance to humans or their wild conspecifics.^[31]

Some studies suggests that inadequate published data in animal testing may result in irreproducible research, with missing details about how experiments are done are omitted from published papers or differences in testing that may introduce bias. Examples of hidden bias include a 2014 study from McGill University in Montreal, Canada which suggests that mice handled by men rather than women showed higher stress levels.^{[5] [32] [33]} Another report in 2016 suggested that gut microbiomes in mice may accept an impact upon scientific research.^[34]

Encounter likewise [edit]

• Brute testing
• Animal model
• BALB/c
• C57BL/six
• Iron, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey, 5 mice who orbited the Moon in 1972
• Mouse models of colorectal and abdominal cancer
• Preclinical imaging
• Rat Park
• Testing cosmetics on animals
• Mouse models of breast cancer metastasis

References [edit]

1. ^ "Annual Statistics of Scientific Procedures on Living Animals, Great Uk, 2015 Dwelling house Office
2. ^ US Statistics, 2014 - Speaking of Research
3. ^ Carbone, 50 (2004). What Animals Want: Expertise and Advancement in Laboratory Fauna Welfare Policy. Oxford University Press. ISBN9780195161960.
4. ^ Willis-Owen SA, Flint J (2006). "The genetic basis of emotional behaviour in mice". Eur. J. Hum. Genet. fourteen (6): 721–8. doi:ten.1038/sj.ejhg.5201569. PMID 16721408.
5. ^ ^{a b} "The world's favourite lab beast has been found wanting, simply in that location are new twists in the mouse's tale". The Economist. 2016-12-24. Retrieved 2017-01-10 .
6. ^ The Measure Of Man, Sanger Constitute Printing Release, 5 December 2002
7. ^ Biosciences, Taconic. "Transgenic Mouse & Rat Models - Positive Negative Option & Isogenic DNA Gene Target". www.taconic.com.
8. ^ ^{a b} "WUSM :: Mouse Genetics Core :: Services". Washington University in St. Louis. 2005-07-07. Archived from the original on 2007-08-04. Retrieved 2007-x-22 .
9. ^ Valentine et al. 2012, p. 875-898.
10. ^ The states Department of Agriculture (September 2008), Fauna Care Annual Written report of Activities - Fiscal Year 2007 (PDF), United States Department of Agriculture, retrieved xiv January 2016
11. ^ ^{a b} Kolata, Gina (eleven February 2013). "Mice Fall Short as Test Subjects for Some of Humans' Deadly Ills". New York Times. Retrieved vi August 2015.
12. ^ ^{a b c} Korneev, Thou. V. (eighteen October 2019). "Mouse Models of Sepsis and Septic Shock". Molecular Biology. 53 (5): 704–717. doi:10.1134/S0026893319050108. PMID 31661479.
13. ^ ^{a b c} Seok; et al. (7 Jan 2013). "Genomic responses in mouse models poorly mimic human inflammatory diseases". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (nine): 3507–3512. Bibcode:2013PNAS..110.3507S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1222878110. PMC3587220. PMID 23401516.
14. ^ Bart van der Worp, H (30 March 2010). "Tin can Brute Models of Disease Reliably Inform Human Studies?". PLOS Medicine. 2 (6048): 1385. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000245. PMC1690299. PMID 1000245.
15. ^ ^{a b c} Gawrylewski, Andrea (one July 2007). "The Problem With Beast Models". The Scientist. Retrieved half-dozen August 2015.
16. ^ Benatar, M (April 2007). "Lost in translation: Treatment trials in the SOD1 mouse and in human ALS". Neurobiology of Disease. 26 (1): one–13. doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2006.12.015. PMID 17300945. S2CID 24174675.
17. ^ ^{a b} Check Hayden, Erika (26 March 2014). "Misleading mouse studies waste medical resources". Nature. Retrieved vi August 2015.
18. ^ ^{a b} Perrin, Steve (26 March 2014). "Preclinical research: Make mouse studies work". Nature. Retrieved 6 Baronial 2015.
19. ^ Cavanaugh, Sarah; Pippin, John; Bernard, Neal (10 April 2013). "Brute models of Alzheimer disease: historical pitfalls and a path forward1". ALTEX. 31 (iii): 279–302. doi:10.14573/altex.1310071. PMID 24793844.
20. ^ Roep, Bart; Atkinson, Marker; von Herrath, Matthias (November 2004). "Satisfaction (non) guaranteed: re-evaluating the use of animal models in type 1 diabetes". Nature Immunology. 4 (12): 989–997. doi:10.1038/nri1502. PMID 15573133. S2CID 21204695.
21. ^ Charukeshi Chandrasekera, P; Pippin, John (21 November 2013). "Of Rodents and Men: Species-Specific Glucose Regulation and Type 2 Diabetes Inquiry". ALTEX. 31 (2): 157–176. doi:10.14573/altex.1309231. PMID 24270692.
22. ^ Glenn Begley, C; Ellis, L (29 March 2012). "Drug evolution: Raise standards for preclinical cancer enquiry". Nature. 483 (7391): 531–533. Bibcode:2012Natur.483..531B. doi:10.1038/483531a. PMID 22460880. S2CID 4326966.
23. ^ Voskoglou-Nomikos, T; Pater, J; Seymour, Fifty (xv September 2003). "Clinical predictive value of the in vitro cell line, human xenograft, and mouse allograft preclinical cancer models" (PDF). Clinical Cancer Research. 9 (eleven): 4227–4239. PMID 14519650. Retrieved half-dozen August 2015.
24. ^ Dennis, C (17 August 2006). "Cancer: off by a whisker". Nature. 442 (7104): 739–41. Bibcode:2006Natur.442..739D. doi:10.1038/442739a. PMID 16915261. S2CID 4382984.
25. ^ Garber, Thousand (6 September 2006). "Debate Grows Over New Mouse Models of Cancer". Periodical of the National Cancer Institute. 98 (17): 1176–eight. doi:ten.1093/jnci/djj381. PMID 16954466.
26. ^ Begley, Sharon (five September 2008). "Rethinking the state of war on cancer". Newsweek. Retrieved 6 Baronial 2015.
27. ^ ^{a b} Bolker, Jessica (ane Nov 2012). "There'south more than to life than rats and flies". Nature. Retrieved 6 August 2015.
28. ^ Cressey, Daniel (2 March 2010). "Fat rats skew research results". Nature. 464 (nineteen): xix. doi:10.1038/464019a. PMID 20203576.
29. ^ Balcomb, J; Barnard, N; Sandusky, C (November 2004). "Laboratory routines cause fauna stress". Contemporary Topics in Laboratory Animal Science. 43 (6): 42–51. PMID 15669134.
30. ^ Murgatroyd, C; et al. (viii November 2009). "Dynamic DNA methylation programs persistent adverse effects of early-life stress". Nature Neuroscience. 12 (12): 1559–1566. doi:10.1038/nn.2436. PMID 19898468. S2CID 3328884.
31. ^ Lahvis, Garet (June 29, 2017). "Unbridle biomedical inquiry from the laboratory muzzle". eLife: 1–10. doi:x.7554/eLife.27438.
32. ^ Katsnelson, Alla (2014). "Male person researchers stress out rodents". Nature. doi:ten.1038/nature.2014.15106. S2CID 87534627.
33. ^ "Male Scent May Compromise Biomedical Inquiry". Science | AAAS. 2014-04-28. Retrieved 2017-01-x .
34. ^ "Mouse microbes may make scientific studies harder to replicate". Science | AAAS. 2016-08-15. Retrieved 2017-01-ten .

Sources [edit]

• Valentine, Helen; Daugherity, Erin K.; Singh, Bhupinder; Maurer, Kirk J. (2012). "The Experimental Use of Syrian Hamsters". In Suckow, Mark A.; Stevens, Karla A.; Wilson, Ronald P. (eds.). The laboratory rabbit, guinea grunter, hamster, and other rodents (1st. ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press. pp. 875–898. ISBN978-0123809209.

External links [edit]

• Data virtually mouse models from HOPES:Huntington'southward Affliction Outreach Project for Didactics at Stanford
• Animal Model of Disease from Brute Research Organization

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing_on_rodents

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